Sino-Turkish Relations from the Pre-Modern Era to the Present
Main Article Content
Abstract
In the early 21st century, relations between People’s Republic of China
and the Republic of Turkey were not a point of focus for international observers,
but now one can observe a dramatic change in perception has. Multidimensional
Sino-Turkish relations dates back as far as to the pre-modern era. This study
attempts at filling the gap on multidimensional Sino-Turkish relations in official,
diplomatic, military, economy and culture, political, and religious level from the
pre-modern era to the present through a historical perspective narrative.
Downloads
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright
Submission of a manuscript to the WILAYAH implies that the submitted work has not been published before (except as part of a thesis or report or abstract), that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere; that all co-authors have approved its publication. The WILAYAH : International Journal of East Asian Studies adopts CC BY license. As such, we would be grateful if an acknowledgement accompanies the republication that the work was originally published in WILAYAH. The editors will ensure digital preservation of access to the journal content by the Journal depository section.
Disclaimer
Although the Department of East Asian Studies is the publisher of the WILAYAH : International Journal of East Asian Studies, the views presented in the WILAYAH are entirely those of the contributors and do not reflect the official stand of the Department of East Asian Studies. The Department does not hold itself responsible for the accuracy of any article published. Publisher and co-publishers assume no responsibility, nor by the editors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a result of any actual or alleged libellous statements, infringement of intellectual property or privacy rights, or products liability, whether resulting from negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any ideas, instructions, procedures, products or methods contained in the material therein.
References
Altay, Kuzzat, “Why Erdogan has Abandoned the Uyghurs,” Foreign Policy, 2 March 2021, https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/03/02/why-erdogan-has-abandoned-the-uyghurs
Alemdaroglu, Ayca and Sultan Tape, “Erdogan is Turning Turkey into a Chinese Client State,” Foreign Policy, 16 September 2020, https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/09/16/erdogan-is-turning-turkey-into-a-chinese-client-state/
Ali Bakir, “What an Iran-China Pact Means for Turkey,” TRT World, 18 August 2020, https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/what-an-iran-china-pact-means-for-turkey-38903
Berlie, Jean A., ed., China’s Globalization and the Belt and Road Initiative, (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2020).
Berman, Ilan, “Erdogan’s Chinese Gamble: Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan is Betting Big on China,” The Diplomat, 4 October 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/10/erdogans-chinese-gamble/
Bilener, Tolga, “Turkey-China Relations: Ambitions and Limits of the Economic Cooperation,” IFRI: French Institute of International Relations, 5 October 2020, https://www.ifri.org/en/publications/notes-de-lifri/asie-visions/turkey-china-relations-ambitions-and-limits-economic
Blakemore, Erin, “What is Colonialism?,” National Geographic, 20 February 2019, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/colonialism
Borell, Joseph, “The Way Ahead After a Difficult 2020 For EU-Turkey Relations,” European Union External Action Services, 18 December 2020, https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/90861/way-ahead-after-difficult-2020-eu-turkey-relations-%C2%A0_en
Bostock, Bill, “Turkey is Accused of Extraditing Uighur Muslims to China in Exchange for COVID-19 Vaccine,” Business Insider, 16 January 2021, https://www.businessinsider.com/turkey-accused-of-extraditing-uighur-muslims-for-china-coronavirus-vaccine-2021-1
Cagaptay, Soner, “Turkey’s Imperial Foreign Policy: Vision vs. Reality,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 6 March 2020, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/turkeys-imperial-foreign-policy-vision-vs-reality.
Cagaptay, Soner, “Will Turkey and China Become Friends?,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 14 August 2019, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/will-turkey-and-china-become-friends
Caryl, Christian, Strange Rebels: 1979 and the Birth of the 21st Century, (London, Basic Books, 2014).
Christoph Nedopil, “Countries of the belt and Road Initiatives,” Green Belt and Road Initiative Center, 5 January 2021, https://green-bri.org/countries-of-the-belt-and-road-initiative-bri/?cookie-state-change=1632030431268
Chao-Fong, Léonie, ‘The 13 Dynasties that Ruled China in Order,” Historyhit, 1 September 2020, https://www.historyhit.com/the-dynasties-that-ruled-china-in-order/
Chaziza, Mordechai, “Sino-Turkish ‘Solid Strategic Partnership’: China’s Dream or a Reality?,” China Report 52, no. 4, (2016): 265-283.
Chen, Maggie Xiaoyang and Lin, Chuanhao, “Foreign Investment Across the Belt and Road: Patterns, Determinants and Effects,” World Bank Group, October 2018, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30577
Cheek, Timothy, Mao Zedong China’s Revolution: A Brief History with Documents, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).
Chen, Yuan Julian, “Between Two Universal Empires: Ottoman-China Connections in the Sixteenth Century,” Yale InterAsia Connections Conference: Alternative Asias, 2016, https://www.academia.edu/32028698
“China, Turkey to Establish Strategic Cooperative Relationship,” China Daily, 8 October 2010, https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-10/08/content_11386689.htm
Chu, Yin-wah and So, Alvin Y., “State Neoliberalism: The Chinese Road to capitalism,” inYin-wah Chu, ed., Chinese Capitalisms: Historical Emergence and Political Implications, (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 46-72.
Cieciura, Wlodzimierz, “The Crescent and the Red Star: Hui Muslims and Chinese Communism,” Ročník 6, no. 1, (2014): 6-21. Selçuk Çolakoğlu, Turkey and China: Political, Economic and Strategic Aspects of the Relationship, (Singapore, World Scientific, 2021).
Çolakoğlu, Selcuk, Turkey and China: Political, Economic and Strategic Aspects of the Relationship, (Singapore, World Scientific, 2021).
Craig-Harris, Lillian, China Consider the Middle East, (London, Bloomsbury Academic, 1993).
Cucchisi. Jennifer Lynn, “The Causes and Effects of the Chinese Civil War, 1927-1949,” (Master Thesis, Seton Hall University, 2002).
Cucchisi. Jennifer Lynn, “Turkish Foreign Policy and Strategic Partnership in Asia Pacific,” (Master Thesis, Middle East Technical University, 2019).
Degang, Sun, “China’s Soft Military Presence in the Middle East,” King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, January 2018, http://www.kfcris.com/pdf/07b46fba22562acf20bb92fb68f5ea5c5aaa11036d535.pdf
Demirci, Zuhal, “Turkish, Chinese Ties to Deepen Further: Envoy,” Anadolu Agency (AA), 16 January 2021, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkish-chinese-ties-to-deepen-further-envoy/2112406
Doerfer, Gerhard “Die Türken Mittler Kultureller und Sprachlicher Strömungen in Eurasien [The Turks’ Middle Cultural and linguistic Streams in Eurasia],” Politik und Wirtschaft 7, no. 2-3, (1966); 24-32.
European Union, “Key Findings of the 2020 Report on Turkey – Admission Status and Progress,” EU Comission, 6 October 2020, file:///Users/mdazman/Downloads/Key_findings_of_the_2020_Report_on_Turkey.pdf
Feng, John, “The Rise of China: How Communist Party Transformed Country Into a Superpower,” Newsweek, 7 January 2021, https://www.newsweek.com/rise-china-how-communist-party-transformed-country-superpower-1605497
Feng, Xingyuan, li, Weisen and Osborne, Evan W., “Classical Liberalism in China: Some History and Prospects,” Econ Journal Watch 14, no. 2, (2017): 218-240.
Fidan, Giray, “Sino-Turkish Relations: An Overview,” Middle East Institute (MEI), 4 October 2013, https://www.mei.edu/publications/sino-turkish-relations-overview
Finley, Jo Smith, “Islam in China,” Oxford Bibliographies, 30 November 2015, https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199920082/obo-9780199920082-0121.xml
Friedberg, Aron L., The Authoritarian Challenge: China, Russia, and the Threat to the Liberal International Order, (Tokyo, The Sasakawa Peace Foundation, 2018).
Fulton, Jonathan, “China’s Changing Role in the Middle East,” Rafik Hariri Center for the Middle East - Atlantic Council Policy, 5 June 2019, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/report/china-s-changing-role-in-the-middle-east-2/
Fulton, Jonathan, China’s Relations with the Gulf Monarchies, (London, Routledge, 2019).
Gunner, Jennifer, “Historical Eras: List of Major Time Periods in History,” Yourdictionary, 12 Jul 2021, https://examples.yourdictionary.com/historical-eras-list-of-major-time-periods-in-history.html
He Yini, “China to Invest $900b in Belt and Road Initiative,” China Daily, 28 May 2015, https://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2015-05/28/content_20845687.htm
Metin Heper, “Kemalism/Ataturkism,” in Metin Heper and Sabri Sayari, eds., The Routledge Handbook of Modern Turkey, (London, Routledge, 2017): 139-148.
Nolan, E.H., ‘Two-fced: Translations of a portrait of Abdülhamid II,’ In E.M., Troelenberg, K., Schankweiler, & A.S., Messner, Reading objects in the contact zone, Heidelberg Studies on Transculturality, 9, Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing, pp: 35-41. 2021.
Hoberman, Barry, “The Battle of Talas,” Saudi Aramco World 33, no. 5, (1982): 26-31.
Honghui, Pan, “Prospects for Sino-Turkish Relations,” China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies 2, no. 1, (2016): 101-117.
Honghui, Pan, “Prospects for Sino-Turkish Relations: Unlikely Partnership or Uncertain Complex?,” China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies 2, no. 1, (2016): 101-117.
Idon, Paul, “How China is Heavily Contributing to Middle East Drone and Missile Proliferation,” Al Araby: The New Arab, 4 July 2019, https://english.alaraby.co.uk/analysis/china-heavily-contributing-middle-east-drone-proliferation
Karpat, Kemal H., The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State, (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001).
Resat Kasaba, “Open-Door Treaties: China and the Ottoman Empire Compared,” New Perspectives on Turkey 7, (1992): 71-89.
Kayali, Hasan, “The Young Turks and the Committee of Union and Progress,” The Routledge Handbook of Modern Turkey, (London, Routledge, 2017): 26-34.
Kenneth-Warren, Chase, Firearms: A Global History to 1700, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008).
Klepek, Jakub, “Contemporary China-Turkey Relations,” Institute of New Europe, 22 January 2020, https://ine.org.pl/en/contemporary-china-turkey-relations/
Klimeš, Ondřej, “China’s Xinjiang Propaganda and United Front Work in Turkey: Actors and Content,” Revue Monde Chinois 62, no. 2, (2020): 44-71.
Klimeš, Ondrej, “The Xinjiang Crisis and Sino-Turkish Relations during the Pandemic: Part one,” China Brief 2, no. 4, (2021): 13-18.
Kozhabekova, Zhanar, “Turkic Kaganate and China by Sources and the Latest Archaeological Research,” Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences 82, (2013): 117-121.
Lau, Hilary and Sun, Monica, “China’s Belt and Road Initiative: Projects Pave the Way,” Herbert Smith Freehills, 24 January 2018, https://www.herbertsmithfreehills.com/latest-thinking/chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-projects-pave-the-way
Lavi, Galia and Lindenstrauss, Gallia, “China and Turkey: Closer Relations Mixed with Suspicion,” Strategic Assessment 19, no. 2, (2016): 119-127.
Lirong, Ma, “Sino-Turkish Cultural Ties under the Framework of Silk Road Strategy,” Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies (in Asia) 8, no. 2, (2014): 44-65.
Lei, Wan, “The Chinese Islamic “Goodwill mission to the Middle East” During the Anti-Japanese War,” Divan: Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 29, no. 2, (2010): 133-170.
Lons, Camile, Jonathan Fulton, Degang Sun and Naser Al-Tamimi, “China’s Great Game in the Middle East,” European Council on Foreign Relations, 21 October 2019, https://ecfr.eu/publication/china_great_game_middle_east/
Mashino, Ito, “Future of the Middle East Caught between US-China and US-Russia Rivalry,” Mitsui & Co. Global Strategic Studies Institute Monthly Report, 23 September 2020, https://www.mitsui.com/mgssi/en/report/detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2020/09/24/2008e_mashino_e.pdf
Mao, Yufeng, “A Muslim Vision for the Chinese Nation: Pilgrimage Missions to Mecca during World War 11,” The Journal of Asian Studies 70, no. 2, (2011): 373-395.
Mao Zedong, “The Problem of the Minority Nationalities,” in Mao Zedong, ed., Selected Works of Mao Zedong (Volume 3), (Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1975): 255-256.
Mao Zedong, “The Question of Democracy,” in Mao Zedong, ed., Selected Works of Mao Zedong (Volume 1), (Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1975): 288-289.
Millet Allan R., “Allied Forces in the Korean War,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War.
Mohammed A Salih, “Internal Cultural Imperialism: The Case of the Kurds in Turkey,” International Communication Gazette, (2020): doi:10.1177/1748048520928666
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Trade between Turkey and China, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2021.
Oxford Business Group, The Report: Turkey 2015, Oxford Business Group, 9 September 2015, https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/turkey-2015
People’s Republic of China, “Sino-Turkish Relations: An Article by Ambassador Mr. Yao Kuangyi,” Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of Turkey,7 January 2020, https://www.mfa.gov.tr/relations-between-turkey-and-china.en.mfa
Republic of Turkey, Relations between Turkey and China, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 5 January 2021, https://www.mfa.gov.tr/relations-between-turkey-and-china.en.mfa
Republic of Turkey, Shanghai Cooperation Organization, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 5 January 2021, https://www.mfa.gov.tr/shanghai-cooperation-organization.en.mfa
Republic of Turkey, Turkey’s Multilateral Transportation Policy, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2 January 2021, https://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkey_s-multilateral-transportation-policy.en.mfa
Rubin, Barry, “China’s Middle East Strategy,” China Report 34, no. 3-4, (1998): 345-353.
Rubin, Michael, “Turkey is an Imperialist State: Don’t Let Erdogan Pretend Otherwise,” Newsweek, 29 July 2021, https://www.aei.org/op-eds/turkey-is-an-imperialist-state-dont-let-erdogan-pretend-otherwise/
Sigmond, George Gabriel, “Tea and China’s Rise: Tea, Nationalism and Culture in the 21st century,” International Communication of Chinese Culture 2, no. 3, (2015): 319-341.
Sigmond, George Gabriel, Tea: Its Effects, Medicinal and Moral, (London: Wentworth Press, 2019).
Scobell, Andrew and Alizera Nader, “China in the Middle East: The Wary Dragon,” RAND Corporation, 5 December 2016, https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1229.html
Stalin, Joseph V., “Speech to the Chinese Students in Zhongshan University,” in Joseph V. Stalin, ed., J. V. Stalin: Works, Volume 1-13, (Moscow, Foreign Language Publishing House, 1952): 217-224.
Stoffey, David, Lessons from History: The Han-Xiongnu War and Modern China,” Small Wars Journal, 25 July 2017, https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/lessons-from-history-the-han-xiongnu-war-and-modern-china
Swaine, Michael D., “Chinese Views and Commentary on the ‘One Belt, One Road’ Initiative,” Hoover Institution: China Leadership Monitor 47, no. 2 (2015): 1-24.
Taylor, Adam, “U.S. Ally Turkey May Have a New Best Friend in Beijing,” The Washington Post, 16 May 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/05/16/u-s-ally-turkey-may-have-a-new-best-friend-in-beijing/
Trading Economics, “Turkey Imports from China,” United Nations Commerce Trade Database and Statistics, 19 September 2021, https://tradingeconomics.com/turkey/imports/china
Trevor, Getz and Streets-Salter, Heather, Modern Imperialism and Colonialism: A Global Perspective, (New York, Pearson, 2010).
Turner, B., & Black, D., ‘New imperialism vs. old imperialism,’ Fivebale, 2020.
Uysal, Gonenc, “Turkey Dos Imperialism: Turkish Foreign Policy in the Middle East,” Open Democracy, 12 August 2019, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/oureconomy/turkey-does-imperialism-turkish-foreign-policy-middle-east/
Vera, Joseph, Saborrido, Shayne, Robinson, Katiesha and El Chammas, Christopher, “The Industrial Revolution and Colonialism, Tirac.Weebly, 12 September 2009, https://tirac.weebly.com/conclusion.html
Weber, Isabella, “Origins of China’s Contested Relation with Neoliberalism: Economics, the World Bank, and Milton Friedman at the Dawn of Reform,” Global Perspectives 1, no. 1, (2020): https://doi.org/10.1525/gp.2020.12271
Wilson Center, “Conversations with Mao Zedong: Talk with two Brazilian journalists [translated by Sergey Radchenko],” Wilson Center: Digital Archive International History Declassified - History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, September 2007, https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/123069
Workman, Daniel, “Turkey’s Top Trading Partners,” World’s Top Exports, 11 February 2021, https://www.worldstopexports.com/turkeys-top-import-partners/.
Winter, Chase, “Turkey, China Seek to Expand Economic Ties despite Political Differences,” Deutsche Welle (DW) News, 2 July 2019, https://www.dw.com/en/turkey-china-seek-to-expand-economic-ties-despite-political-differences/a-49425011
Yan Xuetong, “Chinese Values vs. Liberalism: What Ideology Will Shape the International Normative Order?,” The Chinese Journal of International Politics 11, no. 1, (2018): 1-22.
Yan Xuetong, “The Rise of China and Its Power Status,” The Chinese Journal of International Politics 1, no. 1, (2006): 5-33.Yang Chen, “Developments in China-Turkey Relations: A View from China,” Critical Sociology 46, no. 4-5, (2019): 777-787.
Yang, Chaochun-Sadi, “Historical Retrospection of the Cultural Exchange between China and Turkey,” Erdem 5, no. 15, (1989): 725-748.
Yang, Zhaojun, “Sino-Turkish Cultural Interchange in Retrospect,” in Zhou, Yiliang, ed., A History of Cultural Interchange between China and Other Countries, (Waldegg, Switzerland, Henan People’s Press, 1987): 526-544.
Yihong, Pan, Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and its Neighbors, (Bellingham, Western Washington University, 1997)
Zan, Tao, “An Alternative Partner to the West? Turkey’s Growing Relations with China,” Middle East Institute, 25 October 2013, https://www.mei.edu/publications/alternative-partner-west-turkeys-growing-relations-china
Zan, Tao, “An overview of Turkish Studies in China,” Türkiye Araştırmaları Literatür Dergisi (TALID) 8, no. 15, (2010): 281-290.
Zan, Tao, “Uncertainty and Ambiguity: Turkey’s Perception on the Rise of China,’ Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies (in Asia) 3, no. 1, (2009): 66-79.
Zan, Tao, “An Alternative Partner to the West? China’s Growing Relations with China,” in Niv Horesh ed., Toward Well-Oiled Relations? China’s Presence in the Middle East following the Arab Spring (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016): 19-29.